Educational Research

Working Teenagers- PowerPoint Presentation of Research

The following is my research paper submitted on July 21, 2003 for completion of a Master of Education Degree from Southern Wesleyan University. This research is property of Amanda D. Wimpey and may not be used without the written consent of the researcher.

Working Teenagers: Making the Grade Or Making the Money?

Abstract

The effects of holding after-school jobs on high school students have been argued for years. The purpose of this research was to determine the effects of working on teens’ achievement.

This research was a quantitative study to determine how the number of hours teenagers work affects academic achievement. The research showed if there is a correlation between the number of hours worked and the grades the students earn in school.

The research examined a non-probability sample of 65 high school students in the eleventh and twelfth grades that held an after-school job during the 2002-2003 academic year. The participants were students at Palmetto High School in Williamston, SC.

The independent variable was the number of hours worked in a typical week for a student who holds an after-school job; it was determined by a survey. The dependent variable was the calculated grade point average.

The sample was divided into two groups: students working 20 hours or less, and students working more than 20 hours. The correlation test for group one (20 hours or less) produced a test statistic of -0.004 , which concluded there was no linear correlation between the variables. The same correlation test was conducted for the second group (more than 20 hours), and a test statistic of r = —0.0617 was calculated. That test showed no linear correlation between the variables.

According to this research, there is no linear correlation between the number of hours a student works and the GPA he or she earns in school.

Chapter One

Introduction

The effects of holding after-school jobs on high school students have been argued for years. Regardless of one’s personal view, there is research available to support any opinion. The purpose of this research is to determine the effects of working on teens’ achievement—be it positive or negative effects. A study completed by Bittner found that the percentage of high school students who work a part-time job to be estimated between 21 and 75% (High & Collins, 1992). In 1990 and again in 1993, those percentages were reported to be anywhere between 40 and 60% (Bedenbaugh & Garvey, 1993; Green 1990). This comes at a time when there is much emphasis on student achievement through various testing procedures. As Singh (1998) reports, there is a high emphasis on improving America’s educational system—particularly in the secondary schools. As an educator, the researcher has noted that standardized tests used in the past to measure a student’s achievement are now being re-examined and re-written. These tests are becoming more difficult to “pass” or score well on. Therefore, the teachers must re-design their way of teaching and the curriculum taught in order to adequately prepare students for such tests. This puts increasing pressure on the teachers and the students for the students to perform well in the classroom. As a senior-level mathematics teacher, the researcher has noticed a decline in student achievement when part-time jobs are incorporated into the mix. Although the tests are more difficult, students appear to have other obligations toward an after-school job, and consequently see the job as more significant than the schoolwork.

Most working teenagers will continue to work even if there are negative implications (Stern, 1997). If there is need for extra help, and tutoring times are being scheduled for the student, the researcher has found students not attending tutoring or after-school programs for reasons that they “have to work.” Learning is taking second place—not to extra-curricular activities such as football, volleyball, or band—but to part-time jobs. Making money takes precedence over making the grade. Johnson and Lino (2000) has reported that 34% of the surveyed 14- to 17-year-olds work more than 20 hours per week and more than 10 weeks per year. Is there a relationship between holding a job and declining grade point averages (GPAs)? Another purpose of this study is to gain an understanding of a factor that may be affecting student achievement. The researcher intends to share the results of the study with the related school administrators, leaders, and educators. The research will determine how student academics are affected by after-school jobs. It will also be determined if the number of hours worked is an influencing factor on a student’s academic work.

This study will also seek to explore the reasons that jobs have taken such high position in some teenagers’ lives. Do jobs affect student achievement? If this is the case, why do students continue to work? Over twenty years ago, politicians and educators promoted the idea of working students. They claimed the work fostered independence, responsibility, and good work habits (Steinberg, Laurence, & Levine; 1997). In 1991, Marsh stated that working students develop a more positive character and gain a better understanding of the world of work. The government has praised part-time work as a way of bridging youth and adulthood. Many parents and educators hope job experience will teach students money management (Kelly, 1998). However, in recent years, there has been a concern among policymakers and business leaders about the declining economic status of non-college bound youth in the United States. Students are spending money in lieu of saving money, and students are working because they want to spend money (Bedenbaugh and Garvey, 1993). The study will investigate the drive behind the working. The researcher will determine the estimated percentage of students working for “luxury” items, as well as the percentage of those students working to help support their families monetarily.

Many parents and educators believe work promotes a pseudomaturity rather than true maturity. Conversely, Shanahan, Elder, Burchinal, and Conger (1996) suggest that teenage earnings are symbolic of their transition into the adult world—that working after school will promote maturity in a student. Other studies speak differently to the matter: increased drug and alcohol use has been linked to long hours of work; cynical attitudes have been fostered instead of respect for work, and dissention with parents has higher occurrence (Kelly, 1998; Steinberg et al., 1993; Bachman & Schulenberg, 1993). Most youth are working for short-term personal consumption, rather than save for post-secondary education. Marsh (1991) has reported that students who work to save money for a college education are different types of students than those who work to spend money. From these concerns have come efforts to strengthen the enforcement of child labor laws. Some states have taken initiatives to enforce additional restrictions on the employment of minors. Other states have liberated child labor laws, and the federal government has enacted the School-to-Work Opportunities Act in 1994, which grants money to those states developing programs that emphasize work-based learning, school involvement by employers, and paid work by students (Hershey, Hudis, Silverberg, & Haimson, 1997). Stern reported in 1997 that negative impacts made by part-time jobs are negligible if the work experiences are aligned with school-to-work initiatives. Another study from 1998 by Kelly stated that the college entrance rates were higher among those students participating in the work-based programs through the school than those students who did not participate in such programs.

This study will also inquire of students the number of hours they work after school. Is there a critical cut-off point of hours worked before it affects a student’s academic achievement? Steinberg, Fegley, and Dornbusch (1993) reported the critical hour cap at 20 hours per week. The researcher has observed a decline in student achievement in the cases where the student is working an abundance of hours in an after-school job. Students have to be awakened during class, and when asked why they were sleeping, the response is usually work-related. The school day ends at three o’clock, and therefore, a student’s workday cannot begin until then. It has been noticed by the researcher that the workday for students extends into the late night—sometimes midnight. For a student who must get up early for an eight o’clock beginning to a school day, this is a difficult task. When is homework and studying to be completed? Also, students who work will not have time for other school-related events that foster unity and teamwork (Kelly, 1998; Steinberg, et al., 1993; Bachman & Schulenberg, 1993). This study will determine if working long hours precipitates negative behavior in teenagers as noted in other studies (Bachman & Schulenberg, 1993; Steinberg et al., 1993). Are students working long hours in a part-time job after school because they are not interested in academics? How is working effecting the learning? Which is more important to a teenager: making the grade or making the money?

Chapter Two

Literature Review

A variety of research studies have been conducted in the area of teenagers and employment. Earlier views of the benefits of after-school employment for youth have been challenged, particularly for those students who work more than 15-20 hours per week (Kelly, 1998). This has not deterred the rising number of teens who hold after-school jobs, however. In an issue of Newsweek magazine, it was reported that after-school jobs have become a norm for most teenagers (November 6, 1992). The Simmons Market Research Bureau reports that more than 5 million children between the ages of 12 and 17 are now holding part-time jobs. A survey conducted of 14- to 17-year-olds found that 34% held a job at sometime during the calendar year. It also found that 27% worked ten or fewer weeks per year—mostly likely during summer months. Thirty-nine percent of the same age group worked more than 10 weeks per year and 20 and fewer hours per week; 34% worked more than 10 weeks per year and more than 20 hours per week (Johnson and Lino, 2000). A study by Singh reports that middle school and high school students are twice as likely to work now as they were in the 1950s (1998). Singh adds that this rise in teenage jobs does not discriminate according to race, gender, or socioeconomic status. This rise also comes at a time when there is a high emphasis on improving American educational systems—particularly in the secondary schools. In 1998, Bittner found the percentage of high school students who work a part-time job to be between 21% and 75% (High & Collins, 1992). Other estimates reported have been anywhere between 40% and 60% (Bedenbaugh & Garvey, 1993; Green, 1990).

Some possible benefits for teenage work have been found in research. Jobs can promote positive attributes in children. Such attributes can include independence, responsibility, and good work habits (Steinberg, & Levine, 1997). A job may also help a teenager discover the field or occupation he or she may want to pursue. Some jobs may give students the skills they will need for a future career. Positive adult role models can also be another benefit of teenagers working. Flexibility is learned when students hold jobs such as babysitting and yard work (Steinberg, & Levine, 1997). Marsh (1991) contends that working students may actually develop better character while introducing them to the working world.

Students who work jobs after school are sometimes connected to official educational programs, such as the school-to-work programs. Any negative impact that working long hours has on teenagers’ academic achievements may be reduced if the work experiences are aligned with the school-to-work initiatives (Stern, 1997). Kelly (1998) reports higher college entrance rates among those students who were participants in work-based learning programs than among those students who did not participate in such programs. Ruscoe, Morgan, and Peebles (1996) posed some questions in their research concerning the causation in the school-work relationship: if working students achieve less in school, is this a result of working? Conversely, is the lower achievement in school pushing students to work more outside of school? Steinberg, Fegley, and Dornbusch (1993) conducted a longitudinal study and found that the negative attributes associated with a student’s working come before the job rather than resulting from the job. They go further to state that there is a critical cut-off point at 20 hours per week. The National Educational Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS-88) examined the effects of work on the four core courses: English, mathematics, science, and social studies. The findings suggest a very small negative effect on academic achievement (cited in Singh, 1998).

Many researchers have challenged views about the benefits of teenagers holding jobs after school, especially for those who work more than 15 to 20 hours per week (Kelly, 1998) Lower achievement in academics and lower school participation are evident in many working students (Kelly, 1998; Steinberg, Fegley, & Dornbusch, 1993; Bachman & Schulenberg, 1993). This lower achievement includes lower rates of homework completion, higher dropout rates, and a lower chance of going to college. Delinquent behaviors increase when students are working after-school jobs. This causes higher rates of drug and alcohol use, higher incidences of aggression and theft, and much dissention with parents (Kelly, 1998; Steinberg et al., 1993; Bachman & Schulenberg, 1993). Work deteriorates the participation in school and results in poor academic performance and lower academic objectives (Steinberg et al., 1981; Wirtz, Rohbeck, Chamer, & Frazer, 1987). Another detriment to working teens is decreased time with family which results in decreased parental monitoring (Shanahan, Elder, Burchinal, & Conger, 1996). Many parents assume that teens who can hold an after-school job are mature and should be granted more independence (Shanahan et al., 1996). Research has also shown that working longer hours and negative behavior are interrelated (Bachman & Schulenberg, 1993; Steinberg et al., 1993). Some argue that students who are less interested in school are working longer hours and are more inclined to participate and experiment in drugs and alcohol before they begin working—which explains their desire to work longer hours (Bachman & Schulenberg, 1993; Steinberg et al., 1993). One research group found work experience to be negatively associated with after-school hours worked and after-graduation wages earned. Students either achieved lower grades, or were persuaded to drop of out school prematurely (D’Amico, 1984).

Research has provided many reasons why teenagers work after-school jobs. Many of these reasons, however, seem to contradict each other. For instance, Shanahan, Elder, Burchinal, and Conger (1996) suggest that teenage earnings are a symbol of the transition into adulthood. They go on to say it may promote maturity. If the money is to be contributed to the family, teens may actually grow closer relationships with their parents. Yet on the other hand, these same researchers contend that adolescent earnings can encourage unrealistic monetary values and may actually encourage premature wealth (Shanahan et al., 1996). In theory, a part-time job may teach students money management. Yet, realistically, only 11% of working students save their money for college, and only 3% contribute to their family’s income (Kelly, 1998). Research also shows that most working teens contribute to their own personal endeavors—clothing, cars, food, and in some cases drugs and alcohol (Kelly, 1998; Johnson & Lino, 2000). In 2000, teenagers in the United States—ages 12 to 19—spent $155 billion in retail America. This is an increase from the $153 billion in 1999 (TRU, 2000). Morgan states that 54% of all American teenagers do not receive an allowance (1993). A desire to spend money is the most common explanation for students holding jobs (Bedenbaugh & Garvey, 1993). Marsh (1991) indicates that students who work to save money for college are different types of students than those that work to spend their money.

Chapter Three

Methodology

Purpose

This quantitative study will determine how the number of hours teenagers work affects student achievement. The researcher seeks to gain an understanding of a factor that may be affecting student achievement. The research will show if there is a correlation between the number of hours worked and the grades the students earn in school. The study also will investigate the motivation behind the students’ decision to work.

Research Questions

The researcher will give a survey to the sample of research participants. The research will explore two questions: Do jobs affect student performance in school? Is the effect contingent upon the number of hours the student works in the after-school job? A copy of the survey is included in Appendix B.

Sample & Site

This quantitative study examines a sample of high school students at Palmetto High School. Palmetto High School is situated in a rural community in the mill villages of Williamston, South Carolina. Most of the students’ parents work in blue-collar laboring vocations with little opportunity for career advancement. The participants consist of a non-probability sample of 65 students in the eleventh and twelfth grades. Their ages range from 16 to 18 years old. Permission to use such participants was sought and granted by each child’s parent or guardian. The letter of consent is included in Appendix A.

At the conclusion of the school year, each student’s grade point average, or GPA, will be calculated using the four core courses: English, mathematics, science, and social studies. For reasons that the GPA is cumulative from the ninth grade (a time when the participants may not have been working but are now working), the GPA will be calculated using the yearly average the participants earned the 2002-2003 school year only. The researcher will use the following system of calculations: an “A” will receive four points, a “B” will receive three points, a “C” will receive two points, a “D” will receive one point, and zero points will be awarded for an “F”. Once each grade is assigned a point value, the points are then added up to give a sum. This sum is divided by four to get an overall “average” for the four subjects aforementioned. This GPA calculation will be done at the end of the 2002-2003 school year, using the student’s yearly average for each of the four core courses. The researcher will compare the number of hours worked with the GPA earned. A correlation test will be used to determine the validity of the hypothesis—that working affects a student’s achievement. A null hypothesis of no correlation will be tested to verify the results of the study.

There are some threats to validity of the study. One threat is due to history. Some students change jobs throughout the school year. Students’ hours on the job may increase or decrease at times throughout the study. Also, some students may quit their jobs before the conclusion of the study. This would be a threat of mortality.

Hypothesis

A correlation test will determine the validity of the hypothesis: there is a correlation between the number of hours a high school student works in an after-school job and the academic performance that student gives in the classroom. The researcher expects to find that as hours worked increases, the grades earned will decrease. This will prove a negative, or inverse, correlation. For reasons that this is a correlation test, the null hypothesis will claim there is no correlation between the number of hours worked on a job and grade point averages. The alternative hypothesis will be there is a correlation between the two variables.

Variables

The independent variable is the number of hours worked in a typical week for a student who holds an after-school job. This is a discrete variable, with a finite numerical value. The dependent variable is the calculated grade point averages. Each variable is a ratio level of measurement. The independent variable will be determined by a survey. The dependent variable will be a calculation using the yearly average for the four core courses: English, mathematics, science, and social studies. The GPA will be calculated using the following system of calculations: an “A” will receive four points, a “B” will receive three points, a “C” will receive two points, a “D” will receive one point, and zero points will be awarded for an “F”. Once each course grade is assigned a point value, the points are then added up to give a sum. This sum is divided by four to get an overall “average” for the four subjects aforementioned. This GPA calculation will be done at the end of the 2002-2003 school year, using the student’s yearly average for each of the four core courses.

Data Collection and Analysis Procedures

The participants will be studied throughout the 2002-2003 school year. A survey will be given to determine those students who do hold an after-school job. The survey will determine the number of hours the working students spend on the job after school. The independent variable is the number of hours a student works on the job; the dependent variable is the student’s grade point average. The GPA for each student is calculated at the end of the 2002-2003 school year. A correlation test will determine if there is a correlation between the independent and dependent variables in the study.

Chapter Four

Presentation of the Data

The purpose of this research was to determine how student academics are affected by after-school jobs. The researcher also sought to determine if the number of hours worked in after-school jobs is an influencing factor on a student’s academic work. The researcher addressed the problem by surveying a group of working teenagers attending Palmetto High School during the 2002-2003 school year. Palmetto High School is situated in a rural community in the mill villages of Williamston, South Carolina. Most of the students’ parents work in blue-collar laboring vocations with little opportunity for career advancement. The participants consist of a non-probability sample of 65 students in the eleventh and twelfth grades. Their ages range from 16 to 18 years old. The researcher assumes each survey was answered honestly by each of the participants. The research was limited to students holding an after-school job.

The first research question was the following: Do jobs affect student performance in school? To address this question, the researcher first distributed a survey (Appendix B) to the participants to determine the number of hours each subject works after school. The results of this survey can be seen in Figure 1.

Figure 1. The percentage of students working

according to the number of hours worked after school.

As the reader can see from Figure 1, 46% of the research participants work 20 hours or less per week. Fifty-four percent of those surveyed work more than 20 hours every week.

The survey also inquired of each participant the reason or reasons he or she works. The results of this inquiry can be seen in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Reasons Teens Work

As Figure 2 displays, the majority of those surveyed work to have spending money—48 students. Forty-four work to pay for an automobile—gas, insurance, financing, etc. Some of those students that work for spending money also commented they help pay for the automobile expenses as well. Three students work to help with the family income. Two students work because they will receive course credit through a school-to-work program.

The researcher then acquired each subject’s report card to calculate the GPA’s as indicated in the design of the research. The subjects were divided into two groups. Group one consisted of those students working 20 hours or less per week. Group two consisted of those students working more than 20 hours per week. The results of the GPA calculations can be seen in Table 1, Table 2, and Table 3.

*Table 1. Frequency Distribution of Student GPA's* *for the entire sample*

GPA Range	Frequency	Percentage
0-0.99	1	1.5%
1.00-1.99	25	38.5%
2.00-2.99	29	44.6%
3.00-3.99	9	13.8%
4.00	1	1.5%

As the reader can see from Table 1, for the entire sample of 65 students there was one subject with a GPA below 1.00; 38.5% of those surveyed had a GPA from 1.00 to 1.99. There were 29 students that had a 2.00 to 2.99 GPA, making up 44.6% of the sample. Almost 14% fell into the GPA range of 3.00 to 3.99, and only one student had a 4.00 GPA.

*Table 2. The Frequency Distribution of GPA's for*
	*students working 20 hours or less per week.*

GPA Range	Frequency	Percentage
0-0.99	0	0%
1.00-1.99	11	36.7%
2.00-2.99	12	40.0%
3.00-3.99	6	20.0%
4.00	1	3.3%

Table 2 describes the GPA’s for those students working 20 hours or less per week. One student had a GPA of 4.00, 20% had a 3.00-3.99 GPA, and 40%, or 12 students, had a 2.00 to 2.99 GPA. A little over 36% of the students had a 1.00 to 1.99 GPA, and no student had a 0 to 0.99 GPA.

*Table 3. The Frequency Distribution of GPA's for*
	*students working more than 20 hours per week.*

GPA Range	Frequency	Percentage
0-0.99	1	2.9%
1.00-1.99	14	40.0%
2.00-2.99	17	48.6%
3.00-3.99	3	8.6%
4.00	0	0%

As noted in Table 3, this group was comprised of those students working more than 20 hours per week. Almost 3% of the students in this group had a GPA lower than 1.00. Forty percent and 48.6% of students had GPA’s ranging from 1.00 to 1.99 and 2.00 to 2.99, respectively. Only 8.6% had a GPA ranging from 3.00 to 3.99. There was no student with a 4.00 GPA.

The researcher asked the participants if working was affecting their academic performance. The results of this question were divided into two groups. Again, for clarity to the reader, group one consisted of those students working 20 hours or less each week; group two consisted of those students working more than 20 hours per week. The results of this question for each group can be seen in Figure 3 and Figure 4.

Figure 3. Group One: Does working affect your academic performance?

As the reader can see in Figure 3, 77% of those students working 20 hours or less feel working does not affect their academic performance in school. Conversely, 23% of those students do believe their grades are affected by working.

Figure 4. Group Two: Does working affect your academic performance?

Figure 4 details the results for group two. For those students working more than 20 hours per week, 43% feel their job is affecting their academic performance. Fifty-seven percent of those students do not see any affect on their grades as a result of holding an after-school job.

For the entire sample of 65 students, the majority (65%) indicated working does not affect their academic performance. However, 35% acknowledge that working does affect their achievement. This result is seen in figure 5.

Figure 5. All students sampled: Does working affect your academic performance?

The researcher’s second question was to determine if the effects of working are contingent upon the number of hours worked. To explore this question, the researcher conducted a correlation test to determine if there is any correlation between the number of hours working and the GPA’s. The researcher divided the sample into two groups and calculated separate correlation coefficients. The first group contains those subjects that work twenty hours or less per week. There were 30 in that sample.

The null hypothesis was that there is no correlation between hours working and GPA; the alternative hypothesis was there is a linear correlation between the variables. The correlation coefficient was calculated to be -0.004 . Therefore, the conclusion was to fail to reject the null hypothesis. There is not sufficient evidence to conclude there is a linear correlation between the variables for those students working 20 hours or less.

A similar correlation test was conducted for the second group—those students that work more than 20 hours each week. There were 35 students in this group. In this test, the null hypothesis was there is no correlation between the number of hours working and the student GPA. The alternative hypothesis stated that there was linear correlation between the independent and dependent variables. The correlation coefficient was found to be r = —0.0617, thus failing to reject the null. There was not sufficient evidence to conclude a linear correlation for this group’s data.

Chapter Five

Discussion

Conclusion

The researcher’s first research question was: Do jobs affect student performance in school? The researcher’s first hypothesis was students working longer hours would consequently have lower grade point averages. Based on the results in Table 2 and Table 3, there are great amounts of low GPA’s for the group of students working more than 20 hours. This supports the researcher’s hypothesis. The data also supports research conducted by Kelly, Steinberg, Fegley, and Dornbusch.

The researcher’s second question was to determine if the effects of working are contingent upon the number of hours worked. The researcher’s second hypothesis was there is a negative correlation between the number of hours worked per week and the earned GPA. Although Table 2 and Table 3 show results of a great amount of low GPA’s for those working, the results of the correlation tests (as discussed in the text on pages 19-20) conclude the researcher’s hypothesis was not supported by the data. This result somewhat supports the data found by the National Educational Longitudinal Study of 1998, which suggested a very small negative effect on achievement.

The researcher contends the results from the study were affected by several possible factors. The current class block schedule allows students to take an “early release” during the last period of the day. This allows the student to end his or her school day at one o’clock instead of three o’clock. This would give the student one to two extra hours in which to complete homework and assignments before going to work. On the other hand, the student may arrive at work at an earlier time to be able to get off earlier, thus allowing him or her to complete assignments after work. The students studied were mostly from the technical preparatory courses (TP), taking courses that do not assign much outside class work. Some students sign up for easier courses their senior year so they will be able to keep up with their schoolwork better while working an after-school job. Some parents instruct their children about the importance of school, encouraging them to quit their job if the grades begin to fall.

Summary

The effects of holding after-school jobs on high school students have been argued for years. The purpose of this research was to determine the effects of working on teens’ achievement.

This research was a quantitative study to determine how the number of hours teenagers work affects academic achievement. The research showed if there was a correlation between the number of hours worked and the grades the students earn in school.

The research examined a non-probability sample of 65 high school students in the eleventh and twelfth grades who held an after-school job during the 2002-2003 academic year. The participants were students at Palmetto High School in Williamston, SC.

According to this research, there is no linear correlation between the number of hours a student works and the GPA he or she earns in school.

Recommendations

The researcher makes the following recommendations based on results of the research.

Ø The researcher recommends further research be conducted in this area.

Ø The sample size should be increased to include a larger group of students.

Ø The research should be conducted using a more heterogeneous group of students.

Ø The research should be replicated using participants taken from various schools, counties, areas, and/or states.

Ø The research should be conducted using participants attending a school on a traditional class schedule.

References

Bachman, J. G., & Schulenberg, J. (1993). “How Part-Time Work Intensity Relates to Drug Use, Problem Behavior, Time Use, and Satisfaction Among High School Seniors: Are these consequences or merely correlates?” Developmental Psychology 29: 220-235.

Bedenbaugh, E. H., & Garvey, R. C., (1993). “Competing for time: School and teenage employment.” NASSP Bulletin 76: 74-81.

D’Amico, Ronald. (1984). “Does Employment during High School Impair Academic Progress?” Sociology of Education 57: 152-164.

Green, D. L. (1990). “High school student employment in social context: Adolescents’ perceptions of the role of part-time work.” Adolescence 98: 425-434.

Hershey, A. M., Hudis, P., Silverberg, M., & Haimson, J. (1997). Partners in progress: Early steps in creating school-to-work systems. MPR 8292-650. Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy Research, Inc.

High, R., & Collins, J. W. (1992). “High school student employment: At what cost?” The High School Journal 75: 90-93.

Johnson, David, & Lino, Mark. (2000). “Teenagers: Employment and contributions to family spending.” Monthly Labor Review Online.

Kelly, Karen. (1998, July-August). “Working teenagers: Do after-school jobs hurt?” Harvard Education Letter Research Online.

Marsh, H. W. (1991). “Employment during high school: Character building or a subversion of academic goals?” Sociology of Education 64: 172-189.

Morgan, J. (1993, August 29). “Teens in dark on money.” Houston Chronicle: 5E.

Rich, Lauren M. (1996). “The Long-Run Impact of Teenage Work Experience: A Reexamination.” The Review of Black Political Economy: 11-26.

Ruhm, Christopher J. (1997). “Is High School Employment Consumption or Investment?” Journal of Labor Economics: 735-753.

Ruscoe, Gordon, Morgan, Jack C., & Peebles, Cynthia. (1996). “Students Who Work.” Adolescence: 625-630.

Shanahan, M. J., Elder, G. H., Burchinal, M, & Conger, R. D. (1996). “Adolescent paid labor and relationships with parents: Early work-family linkages.” Child Development, 67(5), 2183-2200. (ERIC Journal No. EJ539845)

Singh, Kusum. (1998). “Part-Time Employment in High School and Its Effect on Academic Achievement.” The Journal of Educational Research 91: 131-140.

Steinberg, L., Fegley, S., & Dornbusch, S. M. (1993). “Negative impact of part-time work on adolescent adjustment: Evidence from a longitudinal study.” Developmental Pyschology 27: 171-180.

Steinberg, L. D., Greenberger, E., Jacobi, M., & Garduque, L. (1981). “Early work experience: A partial antidote for adolescent egocentrism.” Journal of Youth and Adolescence 10 : 141-157.

Steinberg, L., & Levine, A. (1997). You and Your Adolescent. New York: Harper Collins.

Stern, David. (1997). “Learning and earning: The value of working for urban students.” ERIC Digest [Online]. (ERIC Document No. ED413405)

Teenage Research Unlimited (TRU). (2001). “Teens spend $155 billion in 2000” [Online].

Wirtz, W. P., Rohbeck, A. C., Chamer, I., & Frazer, S. B. (1987). “Intense employment while in high school: Are teachers, guidance counselors, and parents misguiding the academically-oriented adolescents?” Washington, DC: George Washington University. Graduate Institute for Policy Education and Research.

Appendix A

March 20, 2003

Letter of consent and permission for

Student’s name

Dear Parent/Guardian:

I am presently in a Master’s program at Southern Wesleyan University. In order to fulfill my credit obligations and course requirements, I must conduct a research inquiry and submit a final research project at the end of this current school year.

My research topic deals with the effects on student achievement for students who work after school. In order to complete this study, I must use a small sample of students I am currently teaching, and follow them throughout the school year. All information will be held strictly confidential and for the sole use of the research project. Your child’s responses to the survey will not affect your child’s grade in the class. His/her name is needed for data recording and tracking purposes only and will not be used in any reporting, summarizing, or publications.

By signing this letter of consent, you are granting me permission to survey your child and monitor his or her progress academically throughout this school year in the four core subjects of English, math, science, and social studies by checking your child’s grades in those four areas. The survey questions are the following:

1. Do you have an after-school job?

2. In a typical week, how many hours do you work?

3. Why do you work?

4. How do you spend the money you earn from working?

5. Do you feel your job is affecting your academic performance (your grades) in school? If yes, how?

Once again, I want to make it clear that neither your child nor his/her grades will be affected by this research. If you choose to have your child excluded from this study, there will be no adverse effects.

This study is for completion of a Master’s degree alone. If you have any questions, you may call me at the school.

Sincerely,

Mrs. Mandy Wimpey

Mathematics Teacher

Palmetto High School

I, , grant permission for my child to participate in Mrs. Wimpey’s research on working teenagers for the school year 2002-2003.

Please return this form with your child to Mrs. Wimpey. Thank you.

Appendix B

Name:

This survey is for your teacher’s research project. She is completing her research for a Master’s program at Southern Wesleyan University. All information will be held strictly confidential and for the sole use of the research project. Your responses will not affect your grade in her class. Your name is needed for data recording and tracking purposes only and will not be used in any reporting, summarizing, or publications. Please answer truthfully and completely.

1. Do you have an after-school job? (yes/no)

2. In a typical week, how many hours do you work?

3. Why do you work?

4. How do you spend the money you earn from working?

5. Do you feel your job is affecting your academic performance (your grades) in school? If yes, how?

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