Grammar of gjax-zym-byn - overview Typologically, gjax-zym-byn (gzb) primarily follows object-verb-subject (OVS) word order, and has a mix of head-final and head-initial aspects: adjectives/adverbs follow the words they modify, but postpositional phrases precede the words they modify. It is an agglutinative language, with the vast majority of morphemes consisting of an entire syllable (some noun roots are two or even three syllables). gzb could be tentatively described as an active language (as opposed to nominative or ergative), though this label doesn't fit perfectly either: it marks agents, patients, experiencers, and so forth for fairly specific semantic roles rather than abstracting many semantic roles into generic subject and object syntactic roles. Basic root words are by themselves nouns. You can add suffixes to make verbs, modifiers (adjectives/adverbs), conjunctions and postpositions from them. Grammatical particles include a core set of spatetime postpositions; several kinds of conjunctions; general modifiers (adverbs or adjectives, according to context); pronouns; and suffixes. Case, number, gender, time, and aspect aren't shown by grammatical inflection or suffix, but by postpositions & modifiers. Grammatical roles (case) are always shown by postpositions. Sentences are generally either topic-comment, topic-state, or patient-verb-agent. There are no abstract subject/object markers, consequently no passive voice. The phrases of a sentence (verb, agent, patient, object-of-attention, experiencer, topic, state, comment, locatives, etc.) can generally come in any order, but object-verb-subject is the default unmarked word-order. ----- Verbs There are four basic verb forms marked by suffixes applied to a noun root (usually a root signifying an action, state, or quality). zox action (could be transitive or intransitive) ca reflexive (transitive, with agent & patient the same) moxj reciprocal (transitive, agents acting on each other) van stative; alternative to adjective + comment or state postposition. Examples of all verb forms with the same noun-root: {bly} "falling, orbit, throwing" bly-van. fall-V.STATE I'm falling. bly-ca. throw-V.REFL I'm jumping. bly-zox raxm hxy-i veq'ty-riqm rol. throw-V.ACT cat PAT-at door-seeing through. I throw the cat out of (through) the window. bly-moxj pe bly-txaj-moxj bly-kxiqm-tla tu-i. throw-V.RECP and throw-OPP1-V.RECP throw/jump-exercise-professional AGT-at The acrobats throw and catch each other. {kq} "I, me" is the default agent or topic, so it isn't expressed explicitly in the first three examples above. Time, aspect, mood, etc. are optionally shown with adverbs such as mwe optative, imperative, subjunctive zxoq negative imperative/subjunctive be maybe mje past ler future de nowadays; lately (extended present tense) The topic of a topic-comment sentence and the "object" of some verbs are marked the same way, with a postposition that could be translated in some contexts as "about". If the verb doesn't denote acting upon something, the topic marker or an attention marker rather than the patient marker is used. raxm miq-i pix'rax-tan nxiqn-i. cat TOP-at fire-resembling CMT-at The cat is hyperactive. raxm miq-i zym-zox. cat TOP-at think-V.ACT I'm thinking about the cat. raxm kax-i riqm-van. cat ATT-at see-V.STATE I see the cat. zxum-la-zox raxm hxy-i. touch-AFF-V.ACT cat PAT-at I stroke the cat. ----- Types of root morphemes; "parts of speech" gjax-zym-byn has its own suitable terms for the "parts of speech"; really species of root morpheme. {gun} are content root-words; names of animals, things, states, qualities, interesting numbers, ideas, and so forth. {gun} contain the vowels ix, eq, ax, u, y, or iq or their nasal forms. {jum} are modifier root-words; they're used like adjectives & adverbs (or articles) to change the meaning of a preceding word, or specify which of several possible referents is meant. They contain one of the vowels oq or e, and have allomorphic forms with the nasal vowels oqnq or enq which occur after nasal words (vowel harmony). {nxwiqm} are pronouns. Most are clicks or ejectives ({kq, tq}...); a few look like {jum}, a consonant plus {e}. {dxujm} are conjunctions. They can have one of the oral vowels oq or e, or the nasals inq / onq. Generally you can tell the nature of a {dxujm} - whether it shows truth-values, causation or evidence, or some arithmetic operation -- by its vowel. {cqur} are spacetime postpositions. They contain one of the oral vowels i, o, or rq. Abstract postpositions are formed by combining a {gun} with an appropriate {cqur}, nearly always just {i, o, rq}. Complex spacetime postpositions can include an epenthetic schwa (eq). {pxyr} are suffixes. They contain one of the vowels a or ox. They become nasal if the suffix attaches to a root that contains nasal vowels. (Vowel harmony) --------------- Defaults Defaults are important to gzb. {kq} (I, me) is the default topic/agent of a sentence. lju-zox. read-V.ACT I read, am reading. keq'pax-van. happy.confusion-V.STATE I'm in a state of happy confusion. This means that agentless actions and states have to be expressed otherwise than Esperanto's subjectless verbs, such as "pluvas", "necesas ke...". If we translated those with a simple verb, that would mean "I rain, I am necessary that...". Nor do I use a dummy subject as in English "It's raining". bly-van pwiqm miq-i fall-V.STATE water TOP-at Water is falling = It's raining. jaxln-van purj miq-i. hot-V.STATE environment TOP-at It's hot. If the subject of the sentence comes last (as normally) then the final postposition (agent, experiencer, topic) may be omitted. *gju-zox mwe tq. speak-V.ACT IMP 2 Talk! zquln-van pq. satisfaction.with.work-V.STATE 3 He's pleased with his work. {ke} (multiplied times) is the default conjunction in number-compounds where number roots are listed in increasing order. cxu-dax = cxu-ke-dax 6 = 2 x 3 If numbers are listed in decreasing order, they add (defaulting to {pe}) gaxr-cxu = gaxr-pe-cxu 12 = 10 + 2 Before {dxe} (divided by), the default number is {ciq} (one). Before {se} (minus), the default number is {bax} (zero). Before {me} (raised to the power of) the default number is {cxu} (two). dxe-cxu one-half se-fy negative seven me-dxy 2^5 (= 32) ----- Verbs and sentence role markers Every word used as a verb must end in one of these suffixes: van stative; to be in a state zox active; to do such an act ca reflexive; act upon oneself moxj reciprocal; act upon each other {-van} verbs are not necessarily intransitive, and {-zox} verbs are not necessarily transitive. The distinction is partly between nonvolitional and volitional, and partly between static and dynamic. {-zox} verbs always imply an agent. An agentive, dynamic process will always be denoted with a {zox}-verb, and an agentless, static state will be denoted by a {van} verb (if by a verb at all; or possibly by a postpositional phrase or an adjective). I haven't yet worked out all the detailed rules for handling agentive states and agentless processes. Because gjax-zym-byn does not have a sharp distinction between direct objects and oblique objects, the reflexive and reciprocal verbs formed with {-ca} and {-moxj} sometimes have as their reflexive objects things which would be expressed with oblique objects or complements in other languages. A few verbs tend to almost always take {-moxj} when the subject is plural. hyr sroq i gju-moxj pq. hour several during speak-V.REFL 3 They talked (with each other) for hours. Where the typical Indo-European language would use an auxiliary verb followed by a particple or infinitive, gjax-zym-byn just uses two verbs in sequence. The second verb in the sequence works like an infinitive, though it gets no special marking. Either verb can be marked with {-van} or {-zox} according to its meaning. axtx'iqnz-wam o sru-van runx-zox. Athens-NAME.P to want-V.STATE go-V.ACT I want to go to Athens. [= Athens, Georgia; the Greek one is {a'txen'aj'oqs-wam}, the one in Kentucky is {ej'txiqnz-wam}.] dlu-van henx huw-van lq. right-V.STATE NEG happy-V.STATE 3.GEN One doesn't have a right to be happy. moqj dlu-van voqm rjax-zox huw-van lq. but right-V.STATE yes seek-V.ACT happy-V.STATE 3.GEN But one does have a right to seek to be happy. Abstract postpositions can be derived from almost any root word followed by one of the basic spatial postpositions. These are some of the case-like postpositions used most frequently. tu-i agent hxy-i patient (object affected by action) kax-i object of attention jqaxr-i experiencer miq-i topic nxiqn-i comment jax-i in such a state jax-o becoming jax-rq ceasing to be, changing from Ideas expressed in English by "to be" or "to become" sentences are expressed here by a topic and comment, or topic or experiencer and state, with no verb needed. raxm miq-i pwiqm-da jax-i. cat TOP-at water-full STATE-at The cat is wet. max-baxm miq-i prym-fwa nxiqn-i. human-new TOP-at enjoying.beauty-CAUS CMT-at The baby causes (someone) to enjoy beauty = The baby is pretty. In active sentences, {tu-i} and {hxy-i} typically mark the agent and patient. These are not the same as subject and object in English or such like languages: there is no passive voice for verbs. Some of the uses of the passive (e.g., indicating that something happens without indicating who does it) can be rendered by use of {miq-i} and {jax-o}. biqm hxy-i sqyj-zox pq tu-i. tub PAT-at clean-V.ACT 3 AGT-at He cleans the tub. biqm miq-i sqyj-box jax-o. tub [topic] clean-[adj] [state-becoming] The tub gets clean. If the "object" of the verb is not really acted upon in some way by the agent, another role marker is used for it: {miq-i} or {kax-i} for object of attention or thought, {gju-o} or {nxaxw-o} for the object (addressee or listener) of communication, etc. Also, if the object of the verb doesn't exist yet but is created by the action it's marked by {kriq-o} (being thought up), {biqnx-o} (coming into existence), {kxiqn-o} (being constructed), etc. tq kax-i riqm-van. 2 ATT-at see-V.STATE I see you. ljaxw-gjax miq-i zym-zox. observational.science-language TOP-at think-V.ACT I think about linguistics. dejv-ram nxaxw-o twax-zox pxoq {tq hoq}. Dave-NAME call-to say-V.ACT QUOTE 2 VOC I call "Hey!" to Dave. gix'bu i txeq'ku tu-i kriq-zox fix'sunq beginning at God AGT-at create-V.ACT Earth pe mu ble biqnx-o. and universe rest.of existence-to. In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. ----- Postpostions The core postpositions are: i at, in, with; during rq from, out of; since o to, toward; until One can make them more specific with various other single-phoneme morphemes prefixed (for orientation) or suffixed (for nearness or insideness). Suffixes: being near, far or inside: -m in (part of) -nx in (contained by) -n touching the outside of -j near -r far from -l through, throughout, all through So, for instance, inx inside onx into rqnx out of im part of oj toward but not (yet) at ir far from rql through (coming this direction, toward the speaker) These morphemes show orientation about a center: Relative: v- in front of h- behind jx- right c- left k- among, between cx- all around, surrounding r- at, to, from the other side of l- at, to, from this side of s- above tx- below sq- after, later part of (time) dx- before, early part of (time) Absolute: b- north hq- south zx- west g- east Example spatial postpositions: sij above (not touching) sin on (touching the surface of) sinx in the upper part of (rix'max sinx peq'pax-daj, papers in the attic) sim in the upper part of (kq sim sqiqm-nxiqw, my brain) so going above son onto srqn off of txij under (not touching) txin under (touching) txo going under txrq from under txonx into the lower part of jxi on the right side of ci on the left side of vi in front of hi behind hinx in the back part of vrq from in front vo to in front kin between (touching the things it's between, e.g. a bookmark between pages) kinx throughout (mushrooms scattered through a forest) il through (a road going through a forest) ol through (a man walks through a forest) ri beyond (location) ro beyond (movement) li on this side of cxi surrounding cxonx into from all sides zxi on the west side of hqrq from the south of i(nx) during, while sqi after dxi before dxo(n) until, up to sqrq(n) since, from that time ----- Compound postpositions The abstract case markers all derive from a root word followed by a basic {i, o, rq} postposition. tu-i agent miq-i topic nxiqn-i comment jqaxr-i experiencer Relations shown by the English possessive or the Greek genitive are shown in various ways: sxaxj having stuff sxaxj-i of (belonging to) liqw personal relationship liqw-i of (related to) daxm authorship daxm-rq of (by) The partitive genitive would sometimes be translated with the suffix {-na} ("made of" the substance described by the root). A few other concepts denoted by prepositions in other languages are denoted by suffixes here as well: {-ta} "without", {-ja} "according to, fitting". The most generic postpositions are the core spacetime prepositions {i, o, rq}, which are often used in a more abstract way; and {dxiq-i}, from {dxiq} "a relationship". "dxiq-i" roughly corresponds to Esperanto's generic preposition "je". ----- Participles Use {tu} "agent" and {hxy} "patient to form participles. lju act or process of reading lju-zox to read; I read, he reads, ... tu-lju the person reading hxy-lju the thing read One can add {-box} to get adjectives/adverbs. tu-zym-box thinking hxy-bly-box thrown Note, however, that in many situations where other languages would use a participle, gjax-zym-byn simply strings verbs together. .................................................. ----- Adjectives (and adverbs) Modifiers are formed from root substantives by addition of appropriate suffixes. gjax-zym-byn does not make a morphological distinction between adjectives and adverbs, though in practice some of the non-derived modifier particles always modify verbs or modifiers. If the root noun denotes an abstract quality, use {-box} to form the straightforward adjective (this is the reverse of "-a --> -eco" in Esperanto). Others can also be used. baxm newness baxm-box new baxm-za of newness baxm-tan like new baxm-cox age, non-newness baxm-cox-box old If the root noun denotes a concrete entity or type of entity, {-box} and {-cox} wouldn't be appropriate, but others are suitable. raxm cat raxm-za pertaining to cats raxm-tan resembling a cat pwiqm water pwiqm-za of water pwiqm-tan like water but: raxm-rox independent pwiqm-rox humble {-rox} specifies an idiomatically selected quality of the root substantive. It's similar to "-um" in Esperanto -- not all concrete roots have a defined {rox}-adjective. If the root denotes an action or relation, certain other suffixes are appropriate. lju reading lju-fwa causing to read lju-faj readable, legible lju-gox worth reading If the root denotes a mindstate, an adjective formed with {-fwa} describes the circumstances or qualities that conduce to it, and an adjective formed with {-box} describes the person who experiences it. In {gzb} most or all subjective qualities are named by a root mindstate-word plus {-fwa}. hqum fear hqum-box afraid hqum-fwa terrifying prym appreciation of beauty prym-fwa beautiful prym-box in awe of something beautiful prym-cox distaste for ugliness prym-cox-fwa ugly ----- Comparative/superlative -sra more; comparative suffix (v, adj, adv) -sra-cox less hum-box deep hum-sra-box deeper hum-sra-cox-box less deep hum-sra-box txe... deeper than... siq miq'siq'siq'pij-wam miq-i hum-jqa-box-sra river Mississippi-NAME.P TOP-at deep-ROT-ADJ-COMP txe siq cxax'teq'hu'cxij-wam nxiqn-i. than river Chattahoochee-NAME.P CMT-at The Mississippi is longer than the Chattahoochee. (The ROTation suffix {-jqa} derives a word signifying something like the root word but rotated 90 degrees, from vertical to horizontal or vice versa.) As the superlative in Indo-European languages is a context variant of the comparative, I don't need it here. If I need to be explicit that I'm comparing to all/many others instead of one, txales-ram miq-i cxax-box-sra txe max ble nxiqn-i. Thales-NAME TOP-at intelligence-ADJ-COMP than human rest.of CMT-at Thales was more clever than everyone else. or more simply: txales-ram miq-i cxax-box-sra nxiqn-i. Thales-NAME TOP-at intelligence-ADJ-COMP CMT-at Thales was the cleverest. Note that {sra} can be used with verbs & nouns, too. axz'eq'mav-sqam txe pijk-sqam tu-i twax-cu-sra Asimov-NAME.F than Peake-NAME.F AGT-at sentence-system-COMP kriq-o kriq-zox. create-to create-V.ACT Asimov wrote more books than Peake. pijk-ram txe axzeqmav-ram tu-i twax-cu prym-fwa-sra Peake-NAME.F than Asimov-NAME.F AGT-at sentence-system aesthetic.pleasure-CAUS-COMP kriq-o kriq-zox. create-to create-V.ACT Peake wrote better books than Asimov. ----- Pronouns The simple personal pronouns are: kq I, me tq you lq "one", "they" (generic) pq, mq he, she, they (refers to spirits, humans, animals) te, nxe it, they (plants, inanimate objects, abstractions) {pq} points backward to a previously mentioned person or group, {mq} forward to somone(s) not already mentioned by name. Similarly {te} and {nxe} point backward and forward to their referents. Note there is no plural first person pronoun. "We" could be expressed by: {kq pe tq}, {kq-tq} I and you or: {kq pe pq}, {kq-pq}, {kq pe mq}, {kq-mq} I and others Various words formed with -loq, -noq clitics are relative and interrogative pronouns. max-loq who, whom max-noq who? whom? The non-personal pronouns are: ce this, that; stands for a whole situation described by the previous sentence or clause zqe this, that; stands for a fact or situation about to be described re there; stands for a place-name zqe miq-i gju-zox pq tu-i, hoqnx gjax koq miq-i this TOP-at speak-V.ACT 3 AGT-at that language DEM1 TOP-at syj-faj henx zxe nxiqn-i. use-able not very CMT-at. She talked about how useless my language was. ce miq-i sjum-van, woqj kq hxy-i hyw-fwa-zox ce gaxn-rq this TOP-at thankful-V.STATE because 1 PAT-at know-CAUS-V.ACT this cause-from lunx miq-i. detachment TOP-at I was thankful for that, because it taught me something about detachment. One can add postpositions to show sentence role, and gender, number, time, animacy etc. markers, if necessary to clarify which of several previously-mentioned entities is intended. !tq pen tu-i runx-zox mwe mrunq on. you all AGT-at go-V.ACT IMP mountain to Y'all go to the mountain. vlym baxm-box hxy-i kaxj-zox pq-sxy sroq tu-o pq-mym sxaxj-o. clothing new-ADJ PAT-at exchange-V.ACT 3-female several AGT-to 3-self possession-to. They buy new clothes. ----- Conjunctions {gzb} has several kinds of conjunctions. One shows the relative truth or falsity of two independent clauses. Words of this type are derived by compounding phonemes from a truth table: first clause second clause logic function T T sx = TT, k = TF, p = FT, f = FF T F F T w = T, (null) = F F F onq = T, inq = F So for instance: kinq and - TFFF sxwinq or (inclusive) - TTTF pwinq or (exclusive) - FTTF fonq neither/nor - FFFT konq equivalence - both are true or both false. TFFT (In practice, these are rarely used, except for {kinq}, and I don't think I've ever used any of the 11 other conjunctions one could theoretically form from this table.) Another kind links two clauses and shows their causal relation (or surprising lack thereof); like "because, therefore, however, but" in English. sx + oqn w + oqj jq m sx- logical cause (therefore, because) w- effective cause (therefore, because) jq- evidence (therefore, because) m- not hindered (however, even though, in spite of, but) -oqn 1st clause, therefore (however) 2nd clause -oqj 1st clause, because (even though) 2nd clause A third type primarily works with numbers to show arithmetic operations. Some of them are used by analogy with other words and phrases. pe plus; additive 'and' ke multiplied by; synergetic 'and' se minus; 'except' dxe divided by, per; contrasted with me raised to the power of The fourth kind are individual words to fill miscellaneous needs. hoqnx introduces subordinate clauses: 'I think that...', 'He asked whether...' pxoq introduces quotations: 'He said "..."' txe comparative (as much as, more than) and so forth. cxu pe dxy txe fy miq-i saxm-van, sxoqn 2 plus 5 = 7 TOP-at same-V.STATE therefore.logically fy se dxy txe cxu miq-i saxm-van. 7 minus 5 = 2 TOP-at same-V.STATE. lju-sox nxiqn-i, woqn kaxj-zox twax-cu-vuj renx hxy-i. read-[tending] CMT-at, therefore.in.fact transact-V.ACT sentence-system-concrete many PAT-at I am readful, so I buy many books. zym-zox, jqoqn biqnx-van. think-V.ACT therefore.evidence exist-V.STATE I think, therefore (I deduce that) I am. The {-oqj} forms reverse the causal order: raxm miq-i pwiq-cox-van, woqj pq miq-i pwiqm-da nxiqn-i. cat TOP-at delight-OPP2-V.STATE, because.fact 3 TOP-at water-full CMT-at The cat is miserable because it's wet. {moqn, moqj} correspond to "although" and "but": helenike-lam miq-i sunx-van henx, moqn kun-hoxw-ca mje te kax-i. Greek-NAME.L TOP-at know.how-V.STATE not, although know-CAUS2-V.REFL PAST 3 ATT-at I'm not fluent in Greek though I studied it awhile ago. Examples of the math/phrasal conjunctions: mq-sxy pe kq tu-i vax-onx-zox. 3-female and 1 AGT-at digestion-into-V.ACT We ate together. mq-sxy ke kq miq-i req'jxy ke req'jxy-txaj jax-i. 3-female and 1 TOP-at wife and wife-OPP1 state-at We are married. Examples of the subordinate clause conjunctions: twax-zox hoqnx runx-zox pq. say-V.ACT that come-V.ACT 3 I said that he's coming. twax-zox pxoq {runx-zox pq.} say-V.ACT QUOTE come-V.ACT 3 I said "He's coming." ----- Correlatives, demonstratives and relative pronouns Question-words and relative pronouns are formed by attaching a clitic to any root word. For instance, noq what?, which? max-noq who? [which person?] nu-noq when? [at which moment?] viqj-noq when? [during what period?] ru-noq how? [in what manner?] {noq} can be embedded into a verb. ?gax-noq-ta-van. thing-Q.WH-without-V.STATE What am I missing? ?rynq-noq-zox tq tu-i. action-Q.WH-V.ACT 2 AGT-at What are you doing? Relative pronouns are formed in a similar way with the clitic {loq}. (English, French, and Esperanto all make do with a single series of pronouns for both relatives and interrogatives in wh-, qu-, and ki- respectively.) loq which, that max-loq who, that tyn-loq where The demonstrative clitics (this, that..) are similar in form. koq this near me toq that near you poq that far from us Terms like "here", "there", "now", "then", and so forth are formed by applying these clitics to various root words; usually a postposition is required as well. tyn koq i here (at this place) squn poq i there (in that region) tyn toq o thither (toward you) The distinction between {koq} and {toq} can be interesting with respect to time: nu koq i now (at this moment when I am speaking/writing this) viqj toq i now (during the period when you are hearing/reading this) viqj toq i graxm koq hxy-i pix'rax-zox time DEM2 during message DEM1 PAT-at fire-V.ACT Burn this message now [when you read it]. Terms like "anyone, everyone, no one", etc., are formed by following ordinary root words with various quantifier particles. max pen everyone max-bax no one max kwoq somebody, anyone tyn pen everywhere viqj-bax never ----- Questions Normal order for topic/comment sentences is topic, then comment, but for questions whatever element is questioned usually comes first. ?tyn-noq i vax-rqnx-kox miq-i. place-Q.WH at digestion-out-place TOP-at Where is the restroom? Yes/no factual questions are formed by following the main verb with {zoqn} (roughly equivalent to "cxu" in Esperanto). The questioned verb is often though not always fronted. ?runx-zox zoqn tq tu-i pjylm-pwiqm-daj o. go-V.ACT Q.YN 2 AGT-at border-water-mass to Are you going to the beach? Ordinarily the locative complement would come first, but questioning the verb overrides this and shunts it to another position. Questions with pairs of alternatives are formed using one of the "or" conjunctions (sxwinq, pwinq, rej) and placing the question particle {zoqn} just after the last of the questioned alternatives. ?mjyl rej cqiqm zoqn kax-i jyn-sra-van tq jqaxr-i. honey or chocolate Q.YN ATT-at pleasure-COMP-V.STATE 2 EXP-at Do you like the taste of honey or chocolate better? Questions expecting a "yes" answer may insert {voqm} (yes, indeed, certainly) between the main verb and {zoqn}; similarly with questions expecting "no" and the negative particle {henx}: ?mjyl kax-i jyn-van voqm zoqn tq jqaxr-i. honey ATT-at pleasure-V.STATE yes Q.YN 2 EXP-at You like honey, don't you? ?fiqm-cox-van henx zoqn pq jqaxr-i. health-OPP2-V.STATE not Q.YN 3 EXP-at She isn't sick, is she? All of the aforementioned kinds of questions are usually answered with {voqm} (yes) or {henx} (no). However, {mwe} (necessary, imperative) and {zxoq} (negative imperative) are occasionally used as emphatic forms in response to factual questions. Questions asking for permission or advice either place the question particle {zoqn} after an auxiliary verb, ?dlu-van zoqn runx-zox tyn koq rq. right-V.STATE Q.YN go-V.ACT place DEM1 from May I be excused? ...or use {mwe zoqn} or {zxoq zoqn} after the main verb, ?vlym cqax-ja hxy-i sqax-zox mwe zoxqn. clothing swim-suitable.for PAT-at carry-V.ACT IMP Q.YN Should I bring a swimsuit? Questions asking someone for agreement with a proposed plan use the question particle {srem}. ?kq liqw-o req'jxy jax-o srem tq. 1 relation-to wife state-to Q.YN.PLAN 2 Will you marry me? (Note that, as there is no verb in the above sentence, the question particle follows the chief postpositional phrase.) {zoqn} and more rarely {srem} can question other elements of a sentence besides the verb: ?meq'zax hxy-i zoqn vax-onx-zox tq. corn PAT-at Q.YN digestion-into-V.ACT 2 Is that corn you're eating? Note the difference from {noq}, and the different placement of these particles relative to the postposition: ?meq'zax noq hxy-i vax-onx-zox tq. corn Q.WH PAT-at digestion-into-V.ACT 2 Which corn [or, what kind of corn] are you eating? ----- Subordinate clauses Subordinate clauses are typically introduced with {hoqnx}, "that", or one of the causal (because/therefore) conjunctions. ?kun-van zoqn tq tu-i, hoqnx tyn koq o runx-zox pq tu-i. know-V.STATE Q.YN 2 AGT-at that place DEM1 to go-V.ACT 3 AGT-at Did you know that he's coming? kun-van henx, hoqnx tyn koq o runx-zox zoqn pq tu-i. know-V.STATE not, that place DEM1 to go-V.ACT Q.YN 3 AGT-at I don't know whether she's coming. The default subject in a subordinate clause is the subject of the main clause: twax-zox tam-ram tu-i, hoqnx mwqil-sxra, woqn tyn rq runx-zox say-V.ACT Tom-NAME AGT-at that sleep-tending therefore home to go-V.ACT Tom said he was sleepy, so he was going home. ------ Relative clauses In relative clauses the relative pronoun (formed with {loq}) is usually fronted. The relative pronoun needs a role-marker postposition if a noun. zxy-fwa nxin-i mq miq-i, max-loq tu-i runx-zox "spaxk'tov'i'ja-wam rq trip-CAUS CMT-at 3 TOP-at person-REL AGT come-V.ACT Spactovia-NAME.P from That guy from Spactovia is really trippy. kun-van henx, tyn-loq i ty-van pq. know-V.STATE not place-REL at home-V.STATE 3 I don't know where he lives. Relative clauses can precede the main clause, as in English: viqj-loq i kq tu-i vax-onx-zox, viqj-poq i lju-zox. time-REL during 1 AGT-at digestion-into-V.ACT time-DEM3 during read-V.ACT When I eat, I read. = I read while eating. twax-nxiqn-zox mwe tq zqe miq-i, kujm-loq i vlym-ta-van tq. say-explain-V.ACT IMP 3 this TOP-at goal-REL at clothing-without-V.STATE 2 Please explain why you've got no clothes on. Restrictive and nonrestrictive relative clauses work the same way: viqj-loq i kaxj-kox-zxa o runx-zox, viqj-poq i ser'eq-ram kax-i hxun-zox, time-REL at exchange-place-AUG to go-V.ACT time-DEM3 at Sarah-NAME ATT-at meet-V.ACT max-loq tu-i kyl-plaxnx rjax-o req'ju-kaxj-zox. person-REL AGT-at box-foot quest-to search-exchange-V.ACT When I went to the store I met Sarah, who was shopping for shoes. ------- Logic clitics, other miscellaneous particles There are several particles and clitics that change the sense in which a word or phrase is intended. Like other modifiers, they're postpositive. voqm yes, certainly henx no, not fjoq yes and no; to some degree sqe yes or no; maybe [facts] be maybe [intentions] These express one's certainty about something being true or false, real or unreal. {sqe} expresses uncertainty whether some statement is true or not, {fjoq} a certainty that its object is valid to some degree, but not totally. {be} indicates an uncertainty of one's own plans or intentions. biqnx-van voqm. exist-V.STATE yes I certainly exist. mwiql-van henx. sleep-V.STATE not I'm not asleep. kyl inx raxm miq-i zunq-cox-box sqe nxiqn-i. box inside cat TOP-at life-OPP2-ADJ maybe CMT-at The cat in the box might be dead. kq liqw-i liqm fjoq nxiqn-i tq miq-i 1 relation-at friend FUZZY CMT-at 2 TOP-at You are to some degree my friend. ({liqm} is a very strong word; the speaker probably would not feel a need for such qualification with {kuln}. The incompleteness here is probably depth of intimacy, not friendliness.) In the above sentences, the particles modify a whole verb or comment phrase. They can also be clitic'd to a word and used within a phrase. kjiq hxy-i vax-onx-zox raxm-voqm tu-i mouse PAT-at digestion-into-V.ACT cat-yes AGT-at The definitely-cat eats a mouse. The negative particle especially is often used ironically: mq tu-i twax-zox pxoq {diq-henx-van}, max-loq hxy-i 3 AGT-at say-V.ACT QUOTE pleasure-not-V.STATE person-REL PAT-at vax-onx-zox pxiqlm-gxiq-zxa tu-i. digestion-into-V.ACT butterfly-large-AUG AGT-at "This is no fun," said the person who was being eaten by the giant butterfly. There are also subjunctive words for "yes" and "no", expressing one's desire or moral judgement rather than the situation. They're used for imperatives as well. mwe yes, must be, ought to be zxoq no, mustn't be tq nxaxw-o twax-zox mwe ce miq-i. 2 call-to say-V.ACT IMP that TOP-at I should tell you about that. re o runx-zox zxoq tq 3.PLACE to go-V.ACT IMP.NEG 2 Don't go there. sunx-keq'gxu-tla nxaxw-o twax-zox pxoq {*pxiqlm-van zxoq.} know.how-secret-professional call-to say-V.ACT QUOTE butterfly-V.STATE IMP.NEG "I don't want to be a butterfly!" I said to the sorcerer. kinq txeq'ku tu-i twax-zox pxoq {biqnx-van mwe fu.}, kinq biqnx-van fu. and God AGT-at say-V.ACT QUOTE exist-V.STATE IMP light and exist-V.STATE light And God said, "Let there be light", and there was light. ---------- Conditionals with {boq} & {cxoq} (if) {boq} is used to close a conditional phrase or clause. It's often used with the causal conjunctions {woqn, sxoqn, jqoqn}, or as alternative to {kwonq} (the implication conjunction). It refers to an abstract condition or is used in questioning an unknown condition. pxiqlm miq-i riqm-van lq jqaxr-i boq, woqn prym-van. butterfly TOP-at see-V.STATE 3.GEN EXP-at if, then beauty-sense-V.STATE gjax miq-i sunx jax-o sru-zox boq, woqn hyw-hoxw-ca language TOP-at know.how state-to want-V.ACT if, therefore know-CAUS2-V.REFL kinq te syj-i gju-zox mwe. and 3 use-at speak-V.ACT IMP If you want to be fluent in a language, you must study and speak it. ?tyn-noq o runx-tq-zox, runx boq. place-Q.WH to go-you-[v.act], go if? Where are you going -- if you're going anywhere? {cxoq} closes a counterfactual conditional - one knows such isn't the case, but if it were, then... suomen-lam miq-i sunx-zox cxoq, woqn Finnish-NAME.L TOP-at know.how-V.ACT if.counterfactual therefore kq sxaxj-o twax-cu-vuj "kalevala-gam hxy-i kaxj-zox 1 possession-to verse-system-concrete Kalevala-NAME.G PAT-at exchange-V.ACT If I were fluent in Finnish, I would buy a paper copy of the Kalevala. Substituting {boq} for {cxoq} in the above sentence would result in meaning, "When/if I become fluent in Finnish, I will buy a paper copy of the Kalevala."